Chest ACCP Member Benefits
HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced]


     

Guest Access | Sign In via User Name/Password
This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF) Free
Right arrow Submit a response
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me when eLetters are posted
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in ISI Web of Science
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Add to My Personal Article Archive
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via ISI Web of Science (16)
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Castillo, C.
Right arrow Articles by Levy, H.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Castillo, C.
Right arrow Articles by Levy, H.
(Chest. 2001;120:548-554.)
© 2001 American College of Chest Physicians

Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome Due to Andes Virus in Temuco, Chile*

Clinical Experience With 16 Adults

Constanza Castillo, MD; Jorge Naranjo, MD; Alvaro Sepúlveda, MD; Gonzalo Ossa, MD and Howard Levy, MD, PhD, FCCP

* From the Department of Internal Medicine (Drs. Castillo, Naranjo, Sepúlveda, and Ossa), Temuco Teaching Hospital and Faculty of Medicine Universidad de la Frontera, Temuco, Chile; and University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center (Dr. Levy), Albuquerque, NM.

Correspondence to: Constanza Castillo, MD, Department of Internal Medicine, Medicine Faculty, Universidad de la Frontera, M. Montt 116 Temuco, Chile; e-mail: eureka{at}telsur.cl


   Abstract
TOP
 Abstract
Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 
Study objectives: To describe the clinical features and laboratory abnormalities of 16 adults with confirmed Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) due to Andes virus in Temuco, Chile.

Design: A retrospective chart review abstracting clinical, radiologic, laboratory, and epidemiologic data.

Setting: ICU of the university teaching hospital in Temuco, Chile.

Patients: Sixteen patients with HPS treated between 1997 and 1999.

Results: Patients were aged from 19 to 45 years, 82% were men, and 88% were farm or timber workers with occupational acquisition of HPS. After an incubation period ranging from 5 to 25 days, a prodromal influenza-like phase frequently was accompanied by abdominal symptoms. From 1 to 7 days later, respiratory insufficiency and hemodynamic instability suddenly appeared. In 81%, hemorrhage was evident; in 63%, moderate-to-severe bleeding occurred. The most prominent laboratory abnormalities were hemoconcentration, leukocytosis, thrombocytopenia, altered partial thromboplastin time (PTT), creatine kinase, transaminases, and hyponatremia. Creatinine elevation was common, with clinical importance in two patients. All patients had severe hypoxemia and pulmonary edema. Fifteen patients received supportive treatment, and 5 patients were treated with corticosteroids. The mortality rate was 43.8%.

Conclusions: Bad prognostic factors appeared to be severe hypotension, lower PaO2/fraction of inspired oxygen values, prolonged PTT, hemorrhage, greater volume load, and profuse bronchorrhea. The effects of treatment with corticosteroids could not be determined. Hemorrhage and renal involvement were common in our patients, features not often described in the North American literature of Sin Nombre virus HPS.

Key Words: Andes virus • Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome • hemorrhagic disorders • South American Hantavirus


   Introduction
TOP
 Abstract
 Introduction
Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 
Hantaviruses, transmitted from rodents to human beings, can cause two different syndromes: the hemorrhagic fever renal syndrome described in Asia and Europe, and the Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) without hemorrhage described in 1993 in the southwestern United States.1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 HPS was identified as a seemingly new human infectious disease caused by variants of Hantaviruses: Sin Nombre virus; Bayou, NY; and Black Creek Canal virus.12 13 14 15 16 This infectious disease has an influenza-like prodromal stage, but can progress to a catastrophic hemodynamic failure and pulmonary edema.6 7 8 9 10 11

In 1994, isolated cases of HPS were reported in Brazil, followed by nearly 20 cases in Paraguay. In 1995, an epidemic outbreak began in the southern part of Argentina and Chile.17 It is believed that climate changes, related to "El Niño" oceanic stream, favored the overgrowth of rodents in rural areas, especially in the Andes mountain chains. A new strain of Hantavirus was identified and called Andes virus, with the primary host, the wild rat Oligoryzomys longicaudatus.18 19 20

In Temuco, Chile, 20 serologically confirmed cases (positive IgM antibodies detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay [ELISA] following the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC] guidelines)21 of HPS have been treated: 16 adults and 4 children. We describe the epidemiologic and clinical features of the 16 adults.


   Materials and Methods
TOP
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
Results
 Discussion
 References
 
A retrospective chart review of all the adult patients with confirmed HPS admitted between 1997 and 1999 to the ICU of the Temuco Teaching Hospital (the authors’ own institution) was performed after the approval of the ethics committee of the hospital. HPS was confirmed by measurement of IgM antibodies using ELISA according to the guidelines of the CDC, and with antigens of Sin Nombre virus provided by the CDC. The ELISA tests were conducted in the central virology laboratory of the Ministry of Health, Santiago, Chile, by professionals trained in special techniques for Hantaviruses at the CDC.

The clinical charts were reviewed by the authors who also attended the patients and conducted the treatment procedures. Laboratory measurements were done using the same technique in all patients at the Temuco Hospital laboratory. The chest radiographs were interpreted by the attending physician at the ICU, and conclusions were confirmed by a radiology consultant. Epidemiologic data were produced by personnel of the Ministry of Health with expertise in epidemiology of infectious diseases who researched the most probable place and time of the HPS acquisition in each of the HPS cases, using a three-pathway model based on clinical histories, the account of their relationships, and information from coworkers. They also visited the most probable sites of HPS acquisition to verify the contagion in a specific site. The incubation period was estimated based on this information. Two-sample Wilcoxon rank-sum (Mann-Whitney) test or Fisher’s Exact Test was performed, and p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.


   Results
TOP
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
Discussion
 References
 
The diagnosis was suspected in face of an influenza-like illness or acute fever (temperature > 38 C°) associated with GI symptoms in patients who worked or had been housed in places highly infested with rodents. A chest radiograph with interstitial infiltrates or effusions suggesting pulmonary edema and an elevated hematocrit (> 45%), leukocytosis (> 10 x 103/µL), and/or thrombocytopenia (< 150 x 103/µL) suggested the diagnosis in the early stage of the disease. A common triad was pulmonary edema, hypotension (systolic BP < 120 mm Hg), and hemoconcentration. IgM and IgG antibodies against Hantavirus by ELISA were measured at the virology laboratory of the Ministry of Health, using antigens of Sin Nombre virus, provided by the CDC. In 16 adults, the diagnosis of HPS was serologically confirmed. The HPS affected predominantly farm or timber workers who were exposed to highly infested environments in the workplace (88%): nine patients worked in enclosed environments (storage buildings), two individuals became ill after working in the deep forest, and two women who worked as managers of camping places in the Andes national parks were infected after cleaning up previously abandoned facilities. Two tourists became ill after lodging in uninhabited cottages, and one man became ill after cleaning and repairing a harvesting machine that was infested by rats. No patient seemed to become infected in his or her own home.

The mean age of the patients was 30 years (range, 19 to 45 years), 82% were men, 88% were Hispanics, and 12% were South American natives. The estimated incubation period was calculated based on the most probable place and time of infection reported by the epidemiologists of the Ministry of Health, and ranged between 5 and 25 days.

The mean period of the prodromal symptoms was 4 days (range, 1 to 7 days). All suffered from fever and myalgia, 50% had GI symptoms, 30% had headache, 30% had dry cough, 25% had back pain, and 13% had dizziness, polyarthralgia, and odynophagia. One patient had diarrhea, another had conjunctival injection, and one had a maculopapular rash. From 1 to 7 days (mean, 4 days) after the initial prodromal symptoms, sudden hypotension (systolic BP < 120 mm Hg) and respiratory distress appeared. During the advanced stage of the illness, the most common findings were tachycardia (> 100 beats/min), tachypnea (> 25 breaths/min), and cough (100%). Hypotension and fever were present in 94%. One patient was hypothermic (temperature < 35°C) at the time of ICU admission. Bleeding disorders were seen in 81% of the patients during the advanced state of the disease (Tables 1 , 2 ). Major external bleeding (> 500 mL) was observed in 63% of the cases. All six fatal cases had clinical evidence of bleeding (Tables 1 , 2) .


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		Table 1.. Clinical Evidence of Bleeding in Patients With HPS *

 

View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		Table 2.. Clinical Hemorrhage in 13 of 16 Patients With HPS *

 
Laboratory
Blood samples for laboratory data were available in 15 of the 16 patients. The average number of samples taken daily for laboratory tests in each patient was three, in the first 48 h of admission to the ICU. In a few cases, some of the laboratory results were not available in the patient’s chart. We analyzed the worst laboratory values of each patient at the day of ICU admission (Tables 3 , 4 ). All patients had hemoconcentration (hematocrit range, 48 to 70%). The platelet count was < 100 x 103/µL in 94% (range, 12 to 84 x 103/µL). Leukocytosis was observed in 94% (Table 3) . In 87% of our patients, the triad of hemoconcentration, low platelet count, and leukocytosis was present. The partial thromboplastin time (PTT) was measured in 14 patients, and the values were prolonged in all of them (Table 3) .


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		Table 3.. Worst Laboratory Results on the Day of Admission To The ICU

 
Creatinine levels were high in 54% of our patients (Table 3) . Eleven of 12 patients showed high levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) as well as alanine aminotransferase (ALT); in 9 patients, the lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) concentration was high (Table 3) . In all eight patients, levels of creatine kinase (CK) were increased (Table 3) . One patient had high levels of amylase (Table 3) . In 69%, hyponatremia between 114 mEq/L and 123 mEq/L was found. One patient had hypernatremia (157 mEq/L). In only 3 of 13 patients, the serum sodium concentration was normal (132 to 134 mEq/L; Table 3 ).

Urinalysis was performed in 15 patients. In five patients, a RBC count on urinalysis confirmed the clinical report of hematuria (Table 2) . In three additional samples, the RBC count was high (> 10 RBCs per high-power microscopic field or > 50/mL) indicating microscopic hematuria (Table 2) . None of these eight patients underwent urinary catheterization before the specimen was obtained.

Arterial blood gas analyses were available in 14 patients. Thirteen of them showed hypoxemia and one had hypoxemia with carbon dioxide retention (PaCO2, 72 mm Hg). The mean ratio of PaO2 to the fraction of inspired oxygen (FIO2) was 139 mm Hg at the day of ICU admission (range, 44 to 296 mm Hg; Table 4 ). The patient who died without arterial blood gas measurement had an oxygen saturation < 70% on 100% oxygen. In all cases, the laboratory results showed the most altered values during the first 24 to 48 h of the cardiopulmonary stage and improvement thereafter within 4 to 7 days in the survivors.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		Table 4.. Clinical Features and Laboratory Results on the Day of ICU Admission in Survivors vs Nonsurvivors *

 
Chest Radiographs
All chest radiographs showed diffuse interstitial infiltrates with Kerley B lines at the beginning of the cardiopulmonary stage. In the seven patients who died, the infiltrates worsened in 2 to 24 h to a massive pulmonary edema. In the nine patients who survived, the radiologic shadows worsened slowly in a period of 1 to 5 days (average, 2 days) but cleared rapidly thereafter in 3 to 4 days without residual changes. One patient developed a large spontaneous hemothorax. Pleural effusions in the other patients were not evident on the chest radiographs.

Treatment
All patients received oxygen between 0.4 and 1.0 FiO2, and 69% received mechanical ventilation with 7 mL/kg tidal volume and positive end-expiratory pressure levels ranging from 5 to 12 cm H2O. All patients received IV fluids. The mean volume administered on the day of ICU admission was 3.2 L (range, 1 to 10.6 L; Table 4 ). Vasoactive drugs were administered to 10 hypotensive patients (dobutamine, dopamine, epinephrine, phenylephrine, and norepinephrine). Monitoring with a pulmonary artery (Swan-Ganz) catheter was possible in five patients receiving dopamine or associated vasoactivedrugs and parenteral volume (four survivors and one nonsurvivor). The pulmonary artery occlusion pressure (PAOP) was normal at ICU admission in four of these five patients (4 to 12 mm Hg), and one of them had PAOP of 19 mm Hg after vigorous volume loading. The PAOP rose at the nadir of the cardiopulmonary stage in three patients (16 to 19 mm Hg). One survivor and one nonsurvivor had decreased systemic vascular resistance index (SVRI): 1,289 dyne·s/cm5·m2 and 1,678 dyne·s/cm5·m2, respectively (normal range, 1,700 to 2,500 dyne·s/cm5·m2) with normal cardiac index (CI) at ICU admission (normal range, 2.5 to 4.2 L/min/m2). A third patient showed a slightly increased SVRI (2,729 dyne·s/cm5·m2) with normal CI at ICU admission. After administration of vasoactive drugs, the SVRI increased slightly, but the CI dropped in all these three patients at the nadir of the cardiopulmonary stage (1.63 L/min/m2, 1.94 L/min/m2, and 1.94 L/min/m2, respectively). The other two patients continued with normal hemodynamic values. In five patients, who responded rapidly to volume loading and the administration of dopamine, the insertion of a pulmonary catheter was avoided. In other five critically ill patients (four of them with hemorrhages), the insertion of a central catheter was extremely difficult and not possible in three patients. One patient was admitted to the ICU in cardiopulmonary arrest. Methylprednisolone was administered to five patients (1 g the first day, 500 mg the second and third days, and 250 mg on the fourth and fifth days).

Clinical Course
Seven of the 16 patients died, giving a case fatality rate of 43.8% (Table 4) . The nonsurvivors had lower systolic BP at the time of ICU admission and severe hypoxemia; the PaO2/FIO2 ranged from 44 to 68 mm Hg (mean, 55 mm Hg; Table 4 ). The PTT, platelet count, and other laboratory test results were more severely abnormal in the nonsurvivor group (Table 4) . Six of the 7 patients who died had major external bleeding (Table 2) . Platelet counts and PTT values did not predict the appearance of bleeding or the severity of the hemorrhage, but were less deranged in three patients who had no bleeding (mean PTT, 78 s vs 97 s; nadir platelet count, 44 x 103/µL vs 32 x 103/µL).

The fluid volume administered in the patients who died was larger than in the survivors (Table 4) . Four of the patients, who did not survive, were in refractory circulatory collapse and probably received excessive IV fluids (> 4 L; Table 4 ). These patients eliminated large amounts of serous fluid through the endotracheal tube at the ICU admission day (up to 3 L in one patient); this bronchial secretion was not seen in the survivors (Table 4) . In 10 hypotensive patients (4 survivors and 6 nonsurvivors), vasoactive drugs were administered. Five of the nine survivors received mechanical ventilation as well as six of seven nonsurvivors (Table 4) . The one patient who did not receive mechanical ventilation and died was admitted in cardiorespiratory arrest and died before he was connected to the ventilator. Five of nine survivors received methylprednisolone (Tables 4 , 5 ).


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		Table 5.. Clinical Features and Laboratory Results on the Day of ICU Admission in Survivors by Corticosteroid Treatment *

 
The most frequent complication was bleeding (81%; Tables 1 , 2 , 5 ). Ten patients (63%) had moderate or severe hemorrhages (> 500 mL), and 9 patients bled from more than one source. In two patients, severe intrathoracic hemorrhage was diagnosed at the autopsy (lung hemorrhage in one and a large spontaneous hemothorax in another). One patient who survived had sinus bradycardia (50 beats/min) and nodal rhythm (30 beats/min) early in the cardiopulmonary stage. Three of the patients who died had transient ventricular tachycardia or fibrillation very late in the course of the disease. Severe sinus bradycardia or electromechanical dissociation preceded death in all. Two patients presented with renal insufficiency, and one of them needed transient hemodialysis. One patient developed high levels of amylase (Table 3) , but no clinical evidence of pancreatitis was observed. Hyponatremia was a common finding (Table 3) .


   Discussion
TOP
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
References
 
The clinical features of our 16 patients with HPS caused by the Andes Hantavirus showed some differences with those described in the North American literature.6 7 8 9 10 11 In the prodromal stage of the disease, one of our patients presented with bilateral conjunctival injection, as described with the Argentinian etiologic agent22 and a second patient displayed a maculopapular rash. This patient had received paracetamol and amoxicillin after the initial symptoms.

During the cardiovascular stage, which appeared around the fourth or fifth day after the initial prodromal symptoms, pulmonary edema developed suddenly. On the chest radiographs, pulmonary edema shadows were evident in all patients, but we did not find pleural effusions described as frequently as in the North American patients.23 Patients in whom massive pulmonary edema developed in < 24 h from ICU admission did not survive. The speed of radiologic worsening seems to be a bad prognosis factor, and it was associated with the worsening of PaO2/FIO2 values. Patients who developed refractory shock died in < 24 h despite the use of inotropic vasoactive drugs and volume loading. Hemodynamic measurements in five patients receiving inotropic drugs and parenteral fluids showed normal PAOPs and normal or low CI, as described in the North American literature,6 11 but decreased SVRI in two patients. We did not use extracorporeal membrane oxygenators, a therapeutic approach that seems to be useful, because we did not have these resources.24 25

One of the major findings of our study is that during the cardiovascular stage of the disease, 81% of the patients had hemorrhage. In 63% of them, hemorrhage was moderate to severe, and most of these patients bled from more than one source. In four patients, hemorrhage was extremely severe and preceded death. In the North American literature, microscopic hematuria and prolonged PTT were described, but severe clinically significant hemorrhage is not mentioned.6 Hemorrhages were not described in the Argentinian HPS cases.22 Hyponatremia as a manifestation of the disease was present in 69% of our patients. There was no correlation between hyponatremia and the amount or composition of the administered fluids. Altered renal function test results were seen in 54% of our patients, and two patients showed overt renal failure. No correlation between hyponatremia renal function was found. Renal failure was not described in the first North American HPS patients,6 7 8 9 10 11 but high serum creatinine levels were reported in the Argentinian HPS casuistic22 as well as in some North American HPS patients.6 The Andes virus seems to trigger a mixed clinical picture between the variants isolated in the North American and the Asian Hantaviruses. Linderholm et al26 described pulmonary involvement in patients with hemorrhagic epidemic fever. In 1996, HPS with renal failure caused by the Black Creek Canal virus was also described.13 In the North American patients, hyperamylasemia was seen and attributed to ribavirin.27 Our patient with hyperamylasemia received neither ribavirin nor amantadine. The global mortality was 43.8%. Patients who died suffered severe hemodynamic compromise and catastrophic respiratory failure, which worsened in 12 to 24 h despite the use of mechanical ventilation and vasoactive drugs. The survivors stabilized their hemodynamic failure and respiratory distress in 24 to 48 h (fifth to sixth day of the initial prodromes) and recovered in the following 4 to 7 days.

Five patients received methylprednisolone, all of whom were among the survivors. There is a trend toward lower creatinine and clinical hemorrhage, higher platelet count, but longer PTT in steroid-treated patients, but the small number of patients does not allow us to make conclusions about the utility of steroids in this disease, and further controlled studies are necessary.

Person-to-person transmission of HPS was documented in Argentina.17 However, in the Coihayque, XI region of Chile, the seroprevalence of antibodies against Hantavirus in health-care workers was 3.7%, similar to the general population in that community.20 We studied 67 health-care workers at the Temuco Hospital in the IX region of Chile who attended an average of four critically ill HPS patients, and none of them showed Hantavirus antibodies.28 Despite intrafamilial clusters of HPS in Chile, the person-to-person transmission of Hantavirus has not been proven in our country.


   Footnotes
 
Abbreviations: ALT = alanine aminotransferase; AST = aspartate aminotransferase; CDC = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; CI = cardiac index; CK = creatine kinase; ELISA = enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; FIO2 = fraction of inspired oxygen; HPS = Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome; LDH = lactate dehydrogenase; PAOP = pulmonary artery occlusion pressure; PTT = partial thromboplastin time; SVRI = systemic vascular resistance index

Financed by the Universidad de la Frontera Temuco, Chile. Registration No. 99/110.

Received for publication June 23, 2000. Accepted for publication January 23, 2001.


   References
TOP
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 

  1. Hullinghorst, RL, Steer, A (1953) Pathology of epidemic hemorrhagic fever. Ann Intern Med 38,77-101
  2. Kessler, WH (1953) Gross anatomic features found in 27 autopsies of epidemic hemorrhagic fever. Ann Intern Med 38,73-76
  3. Lukes, KJ (1954) The pathology of thirty-nine cases of epidemic hemorrhagic fever. Am J Med 16,639-650
  4. Earle, DP (1954) Analysis of sequential physiologic derangements in epidemic hemorrhagic fever. Am J Med 16,690-709
  5. Niklasson, B, LeDuc, JW (1987) Epidemiology of nephropathia epidemica in Sweden. J Infect Dis 155,269-275[ISI][Medline]
  6. Duchin, JS, Koster, FT, Peters, CJ, et al (1994) Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome: a clinical description of 17 patients with a newly recognized disease. N Engl J Med 330,949-955[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  7. Zaki, SR, Greer, PW, Coffield, LM, et al (1995) Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome: pathogenesis of an emerging infectious disease. Am J Pathol 146,552-579[Abstract]
  8. Nolte, KB, Feddersen, RM, Foucar, K, et al (1995) Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in the United States: a pathological description of a disease caused by a new agent. Hum Pathol 26,110-120[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  9. Kahn, AS, Ksiazek, TG, Peters, CJ (1996) Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. Lancet 347,739-741[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  10. Kahn, AS, Khabbaz, RF, Armstrong, LR, et al (1996) Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome: the first 100 US cases. J Infect Dis 173,1297-1303[ISI][Medline]
  11. Hallin, G, Simpson, SQ, Crowell, RE, et al (1996) Cardiopulmonary manifestations of Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. Crit Care Med 24,252-258[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  12. Nichol, ST, Spiropoulu, CF, Morzunov, S, et al (1993) Genetic identification of a novel Hantavirus associated with an outbreak of acute respiratory illness in the southwestern United States. Science 262,914-917[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  13. Khan, AS, Gaviria, M, Rollin, PE, et al (1996) Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in Florida: association with the newly identified Black Creek Canal virus. Am J Med 100,46-48[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  14. Torrez-Martínez, N, Hjelle, B (1995) Enzootic of Bayou Hantavirus in rice rats (Oryzomys palustris) in 1983. Lancet 346,780-781[Medline]
  15. Morzunov, SP, Feldman, H, Spiropoulou, CF, et al (1995) A newly recognized virus associated with a fatal case of Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in Louisiana. J Virol 69,1980-1983[Abstract]
  16. Ravkov, EV, Rollin, PE, Ksiazek, TG, et al (1995) Genetic and serologic analysis of Black Creek Canal virus and its association with human disease and Sigmodon hispidus infection. Virology 210,482-489[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  17. Padula, PJ, Edelstein, A, Miguel, SD, et al (1998) Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome outbreak in Argentina: molecular evidence for person-to-person transmission of Andes virus. Virology 241,323-330[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  18. Lopez, N, Padula, P, Rossi, C, et al (1997) Genetic characterization and phylogeny of Andes virus and variants from Argentina and Chile. Virus Res 50,77-84[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  19. Toro, J, Vega, JD, Kahn, AS, et al (1998) An outbreak of Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, Chile 1997. Emerg Infect Dis 4,687-694[ISI][Medline]
  20. Chaparro, J, Vega, J, Terry, W, et al (1998) Assessment of person to person transmission of Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in a Chilean hospital setting. J Hosp Infect 40,281-285[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  21. Rossi, CA, Ksiazek, TG (1999) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Lee, HW Calisher, CH Schmaljohn, C eds. Manual of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome and Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome: WHO Collaborating Center for Virus Reference and Research (Hantaviruses) ,80-91 Asian Institute for Life Sciences Seoul, South Korea.
  22. Parisi, M, Enria, D, Pini, N, et al (1996) Detección retrospectiva de infecciones clínicas por hantavirus en la Argentina Medicina (B Aires) 56,1-13
  23. Bustamante, EA, Levy, H, Simpson, SQ (1997) Pleural fluid characteristics in Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. Chest 112,1133-1136[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  24. Anderson, H, Steimle, C, Shapiro, M, et al (1993) Extra corporeal life support for adult cardiorespiratory failure. Surgery 114,161-173[ISI][Medline]
  25. Crowley, MR, Katz, RW, Kessler, R, et al (1998) Successful treatment of adults with severe Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome with extra corporeal membrane oxygenation. Crit Care Med 26,409-414[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  26. Linderholm, M, Sandstrom, T, Rinnstrom, O, et al (1997) Impairment of pulmonary function in patient with hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. Clin Infect Dis 25,1084-1089[ISI][Medline]
  27. Mertz, GJ, Hjelle, BL, Bryan, RT (1998) Hantavirus infection. Dis Mon 44,125-126
  28. Castillo, C, Mardones, J, Villagra, E (2000) Prevalencia de anticuerpos anti-hantavirus en personal de salud en contacto directo con pacientes portadores del síndrome pulmonar por hantavirus: Temuco 1997 a 1999. Rev Med Chile 128,735-739




This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF) Free
Right arrow Submit a response
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me when eLetters are posted
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in ISI Web of Science
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Add to My Personal Article Archive
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via ISI Web of Science (16)
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Castillo, C.
Right arrow Articles by Levy, H.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Castillo, C.
Right arrow Articles by Levy, H.

HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS